The belief in gender as an immutable binary (i.e., gender essentialism) fosters societal structure that drives prejudice against those who challenge it, such as transgender and nonbinary (TGNB) individuals. This research examines whether TGNB individuals are perceived as distinct, stable, or cohesive gender groups and how these perceptions contribute to prejudice, particularly among those with strong essentialist beliefs.

Across three preregistered studies using correlational and experimental data, the findings reveal that TGNB individuals are often viewed as indistinct and unstable groups, contributing to negative attitudes toward them. Experimental evidence showed that framing transgender identities as stable reduced prejudice, improved evaluations of transgender individuals, and promoted positive intergroup expectations, especially among essentialist perceivers. These results highlight the role of group cognitions in reinforcing the gender binary and offer insights for reducing bias against TGNB individuals (Spielmann & Vial, in press at JPSP: IRGP).

In future projects, we aim to investigate stereotypes of TGNB people using voice as a context. Specifically, we seek to examine people’s expectations of TGNB individuals' voices (compared to cisgender individuals' voices) and further examine whether violating these expectations contributes to prejudice against TGNB people.

Image depicts transgender flag on the left and nonbinary flag on the right; Shadow Vectors by Vecteezy

The endorsement of ideologies supporting the status quo is theorized to provide a

psychological buffer against the negative effects of societal injustices, a concept known as the “palliative function of ideology.” Rooted in system justification theory, this idea posits that perceiving societal arrangements as fair and legitimate can reduce negative affect and enhance subjective well-being, even among disadvantaged groups. This theoretical framework also predicts that the benefits of system-justifying ideologies should differ based on social status, with competing theoretical intuitions arguing that this effect should be stronger (or weaker) for those who are objectively doing socioeconomically worse.

My colleagues and I examined the theoretical tenets of system-justification theory in a comprehensive meta-analytic study (Vargas Salfate, Spielmann, & Briley, 2024) investigating these claims by analyzing over 1,600 studies with data from nearly two million participants across 121 countries. We found a small positive correlation (r = .07) between system-justifying ideologies and well-being, but no evidence for the moderating role of social status. These findings challenge aspects of system justification theory, suggesting that while system-justifying beliefs may slightly enhance well-being, they do not exhibit the predicted social status-dependent patterns. This research highlights the complexities of ideology’s role in psychological well-being and underscores the need for further exploration of tenets of system justification theory.

Image depicts wooden letters spelling "politics"; by WOKANDAPIX

Transgender individuals face elevated risks for mental health challenges, often stemming from social hurdles such as discrimination and lack of support. My colleagues and I explored these dynamics in a non-WEIRD context, focusing on a large sample of Chinese transgender individuals (N = 1,106) (Spielmann, Feng, Briley, & Stern, 2022). The study examined how school-based discrimination and environmental support influence mental health and self-harm, considering gender (transgender men vs. women) and identity disclosure as moderators.

Findings revealed that school discrimination was associated with worse mental health and increased self-harm, while environmental support improved mental health but did not significantly impact self-harm. The associations did not differ substantially based on gender or disclosure status, suggesting that the mental health dynamics observed in WEIRD contexts may not fully apply in non-WEIRD settings like China. This research underscores the importance of reducing discrimination and adapting support interventions to cultural contexts.

Image depicts hands holding each other; by freepik